Tradisi Sejerah Masyarakat Indonesia Masa Praaksara

dibawah ini adalah gambar topologi hal-hal yang akan kita bahas dalam bab Tradisi Sejarah Masyarakat Indonesia Masa Praaksara dan Masa Aksara

A. Tradisi Sejarah Masyarakat Indonesia Masa Praaksara

1. Periodisasi masyarakat Indonesia masa praaksara
Masyarakat Indonesia sebelum mengenal aksara sudah memiliki tradisi sejarah. Maksud tradisi sejarah adalah bagaimana suatu masyarakat memiliki kesadaran terhadap masa lalunya. Kesadaran tersebut kemudian dia rekam dan diwariskan kepada generasi berikutnya. Perekaman dan pewarisan tersebut kemudian menjadi suatu tradisi yang hidup tumbuh dan berkembang dalam masyarakat. Bagaimanakah masyarakat yang belum mengenal tulisan merekam dan mewariskan masa lalunya? Bagaimanakah masyarakat yang belum mengenal tulisan memaknai masa lalunya? Masyarakat dalam memahami masa lalunya akan ditentukan oleh alam pikiran masyarakat pada masa itu atau “jiwa zaman”.
Dari kehidupan masyarakat zaman praaksara, kita mendapatkan warisan berupa alat- alat dari batu, tulang, kayu, dan logam serta lukisan pada dinding-dinding gua. Masa lampau yang hanya meninggalkan jejak-jejak sejarah tersebut menjadi komponen penting dalam usaha menuliskan sejarah kehidupan manusia. Jejak-jejak tersebut mengandung informasi yang dapat dijadikan bahan penulisan sejarah dan akan disampaikan dari generasi ke generasi berikutnya sampai turun temurun. Jejak sejarah yang historis merupakan jejak sejarah yang menurut para ahli memiliki informasi tentang kejadian- kejadian historis, sehingga dapat dipergunakan untuk penulisan sejarah. Jejak historis ada dua, yaitu jejak historis berwujud benda dan jejak historis yang berwujud tulisan. Jejak historis berwujud benda merupakan hasil budaya/tradisi di masa kuno, misalnya, tradisi zaman Paleolitikum, Mesolitikum, Neolitikum, Megalitikum, dan Perundagian.

a. Tradisi manusia hidup berpindah (zaman Paleolitikum)
Manusia di zaman hidup berpindah termasuk jenis Pithecanthropus. Mereka hidup dari mengumpulkan makanan (food gathering), hidup di gua-gua, masih tampak liar, belum mampu menguasai alam, dan tidak menetap. Kebudayaan mereka sering disebut kebudayaan Pacitan dan kebudayaan Ngandong. Disebut kebudayaan Pacitan sebab alat-alat budayanya banyak ditemukan di Pacitan (di Pegu- nungan Sewu Pantai Selatan Jawa) berupa chopper(kapak penetak) disebut juga kapak genggam. Karena masih terbuat dari batu maka disebut stone culture (budaya batu). Alat Kebudayaan Ngandong ditemukan di desa Ngandong (daerah Ngawi Jawa Timur). Alatnya ada yang terbuat dari tulang maka disebut bone culture. Di Ngandong ditemukan juga kapak genggam, benda dari batu berupa flakes dan batu indah berwarna yang disebut chalcedon.

b. Peningkatan hidup manusia memasuki hidup setengah menetap/semisedenter (zaman Mesolitikum)
Mereka sudah memiliki kemajuan hidup seperti adanya kjokkenmoddinger (sampah kerang)danabris sous roche (gua tempat tinggal). Alat-alatnya adalah kapak genggam (pebble) disebut juga kapak Sumatra, kapak pendek (hache courte), dan pipisan.
c. Tradisi manusia zaman hidup menetap (zaman Neolitikum)

Pada zaman ini, manusia sudah mulai food producing, yakni mengusahakan bercocok tanam sederhana dengan mengusahakan ladang. Jenis tanamannya adalah ubi, talas, padi, dan jelai. Mereka menggunakan peralatan yang lebih bagus seperti beliung persegi atau kapak persegi dan kapak lonjong yang dipergunakan untuk mengerjakan tanah. Kapak persegi ditemukan di Sumatra, Jawa, Bali, dan Kalimantan Barat, sedangkan di Semenanjung Melayu kapak ini disebut kapak bahu. Kapak lonjong berbentuk bulat telur, banyak ditemukan di Sulawesi, Papua, atau kepulauan Indonesia Timur. Alat serpih untuk mata panah dan mata tombak ditemukan di Gua Lawa Sampung (Jawa Timur) dan Cabbenge (Sulawesi Selatan). Di Malolo (Sumba Timur) ditemukan kendi air. Pada masa ini, terjadi perpindahan penduduk dari daratan Asia (Tonkin di Indocina) ke Nusantara yang kemudian disebut bangsa Proto Melayu pada tahun 1500 SM melalui jalan barat dan jalan utara. Alat yang dipergunakan adalah kapak persegi, beliung persegi, pebble (kapak Sumatra), dan kapak genggam. Kebudayaan itu oleh Madame Madeleine Colani, ahli sejarah Prancis, dinamakan kebudayaan Bacson-Hoabinh. Kepercayaan zaman bercocok tanam adalah menyembah dewa alam.

d. Tradisi Megalitikum
Pada zaman ini, alat dibuat dari batu besar seperti menhir, dolmen, dan sarkofagus. Menhir adalah tugu batu besar tempat roh nenek moyang, ditemukan di Sumatra Selatan, Sulawesi Tengah, dan Kalimantan. Dolmen adalah meja batu besar (altar), terdapat di Bondowoso, Jawa Timur. Sarkofagus adalah kubur peti batu besar. Di Sulawesi, sarkofagus dikenal dengan sebutan waruga.
e. Tradisi zaman perundagian
Setelah hidup menetap, mereka semakin pandai membuat alat, bahkan dengan kedatangan bangsa Deutero Melayu pada 500 SM, mereka sudah mampu membuat alat dari logam (sering disebut budaya Dongson karena berasal dari Dongson). Zaman ini disebut zaman kemahiran teknologi. Mereka juga telah mengenal sawah dan sistem pengairan. Jenis benda logam yang dibuat di Indonesia pada zaman ini, antara lain, sebagai berikut.

1) Nekara, yaitu semacam tambur besar yang ditemukan di Bali, Roti, Alor, Kei, dan Papua.
2) Kapak corong, disebut demikian karena bagian tangkainya berbentuk corong. Sebutan lainnya adalah kapak sepatu. Benda ini dipergunakan untuk upacara. Banyak ditemukan di Makassar, Jawa, Bali, Pulau Selayar, dan Papua.
3) Arca perunggu, ditemukan di daerah Bangkinang, Riau, dan Limbangan, Bogor. Selain itu, ada perhiasan perunggu, benda besi, dan manik-manik. Kepercayaan di zaman perundagian adalah menyembah roh nenek moyang (animisme).

2. Ciri-ciri masyarakat praaksara

Setelah nenek moyang kita datang di Nusantara dan menetap, mereka meninggalkan tradisi, aturan kemasyarakatan, serta religi yang ditaati oleh  mereka dan anak keturunannya. Tradisi tersebut diwariskan kepada masyarakat hingga sekarang ini. Kemampuan nenek moyang kita sebelum mengenal tulisan dan sebelum terpengaruh budaya Hindu-Buddha oleh Brandes dikelompokkan sebagai berikut.
a. Kemampuan berlayar
Nenek moyang bangsa Indonesia datang dari Yunan sebelum Masehi. Mereka sudah pandai mengarungi laut dan harus menggunakan perahu untuk sampai di Indonesia. Kemampuan berlayar ini dikembangkan di tanah baru, yaitu di Nusantara, mengingat kondisi geografi di Nusantara terdiri banyak pulau. Kondisi ini mengharuskan menggunakan perahu untuk mencapai kepulauan lainnya. Salah satu ciri perahu yang dipergunakan nenek moyang kita adalah perahu cadik, yaitu perahu yang menggunakan alat dari bambu atau kayu yang dipasang di kanan kiri perahu. Pembuatan perahu biasanya dilakukan secara gotong royong oleh kaum laki-laki. Setelah masa per- undagian, aktivitas pelayaran juga semakin meningkat. Perahu bercadik yang merupakan alat angkut tertua tetap dikembangkan sebagai alat transportasi serta perdagangan. Bukti adanya kemampuan dan kemajuan berlayar tersebut terpahat pada relief candi Borobudur yang berasal dari abad ke-8. Relief tersebut melukiskan tiga jenis perahu, yaitu

1) perahu besar yang bercadik,
2) perahu besar yang tidak bercadik, dan
3) perahu lesung

b. Kemampuan bersawah
Sistem persawahan mulai dikenal bangsa Indonesia sejak zaman Neolitikum, yaitu manusia hidup menetap. Mereka terdorong untuk mengusahakan sesuatu yang menghasilkan (food producing). Sistem persawahan diawali dari sistem ladang sederhana yang belum banyak menggunakan teknologi, kemudian meningkat dengan adanya teknologi pengairan hingga lahirlah sistem persawahan.
c. Mengenal astronomi
Pengetahuan astronomi (ilmu perbintangan) sudah dimiliki nenek moyang bangsa Indonesia. Masyarakat Indonesia telah mengenal ilmu pengetahuan dan memanfaatkan teknologi angin musim sebagai tenaga penggerak dalam aktivitas pelayaran dan perdagangan. Selain digunakan untuk mengenali musim, ilmu astronomi juga sudah dimanfaatkan sebagai petunjuk arah dalam pelayaran, yaitu Bintang Biduk Selatan dan Bintang Pari (orang Jawa menyebut Lintang Gubug Penceng) untuk menunjuk arah selatan serta Bintang Biduk Utara untuk menunjukkan arah utara. Kemampuan astronomi dan angin musim ini telah mengantarkan mereka berlayar ke barat sampai di Pulau Madagaskar, ke timur sampai di Pulau Paskah, dan ke selatan sampai di Selandia Baru serta ke arah utara sampai di Kepulauan Jepang. Pengetahuan astronomi juga digunakan dalam pertanian dengan memanfaatkan Bintang Waluku sebagai pertanda awal musim hujan.
d. Sistem mocopat
Sistem mocopat adalah suatu kepercayaan yang didasarkan pada pembagian empat penjuru arah mata angin, yaitu utara, selatan, barat, dan timur. Sistem mocopat dikaitkan dengan pendirian bangunan, pusat kota atau pemerintah (istana), alun-alun, tempat pemujaan, pasar, dan penjara. Peletakan bangunan tersebut dibuat skema bersudut empat di mana setiap sudut mempunyai kemampuan dan kekuatan secara magis. Itulah sebabnya mengapa setiap desa pada zaman kuno selalu diberi sesaji pada waktu-waktu tertentu, bahkan hari pasaran menurut perhitungannya juga dikaitkan dengan sistem mocopat, yaitu

1) arah barat diletakkan pon jatuh hari Senin dan Selasa,
2) arah timur diletakkan legi jatuh hari Jumat,
3) arah selatan diletakkan pahing jatuh hari Sabtu dan Minggu,
4) arah utara diletakkan wage jatuh hari Rabu dan Kamis, dan
5) arah tengah diletakkan kliwon jatuh hari Jumat dan Sabtu.

Jadi pola susunan masyarakat mocopat merupakan suatu kepercayaan dalam menata dan menempatkan suatu bangunan yang bersudut empat, dengan susunan ibu kota pusat pemerintahan terdapat alun-alun di sekitar istana, serta ada bangunan tempat pemujaan, pasar, dan penjara.

e. Kesenian wayang
Kesenian wayang semula berpangkal pada pemujaan roh nenek moyang. Semula wayang diwujudkan sebagai boneka nenek moyang yang dimainkan oleh dalang pada malam hari. Dengan beralaskan tirai dan tata lampu di belakangnya serta boneka yang digerak-gerakkan sehingga terlihat bayangan boneka seolah-olah hidup. Jika dalang kemasukan roh nenek moyang, sang dalang akan menyuarakan suara nenek moyang yang berisi nasihat-nasihat kepada anak cucu mereka. Setelah kedatangan hinduisme ke nusantara maka kisah nenek moyang digantikan kisah Ramayana dan Mahabharata. Bonekanya kemudian diganti dengan bentuk tokoh dalam cerita Mahabharata. Fungsinya pun beralih sebagai pertunjukan dan penontonnya melihat dari depan tirai.

f. Seni gamelan
Seni gamelan ada kaitannya dengan seni wayang. Seni gamelan ini dipakai untuk mengiringi pertunjukkan wayang. Pada waktu musim bercocok tanam sudah usai masyarakat kuno itu membuat alat musik gamelan, mengembangkan seni membatik, dan mengadakan pertunjukan wayang semalam suntuk untuk dapat dilihat oleh masyarakat di sekitarnya.
g. Seni membatik
Seni membatik merupakan kerajinan membuat gambar pada kain. Cara menggambarnya mempergunakan alat canting yang diisi bahan cairan lilin (orang Jawa menyebutnya malam) yang telah dipanaskan, lalu dilukiskan pada kain sesuai motifnya.

h. Pengaturan masyarakat
Nenek moyang kita hidup berkelompok. Mereka bersepakat untuk hidup secara bersama, hidup gotong royong, dan demokratis. Mereka memilih seorang pemimpin yang dianggap dapat melindungi masyarakat dari berbagai gangguan termasuk gangguan roh sehingga seorang pemimpin dianggap memiliki kesaktian lebih. Cara pemilihan pemimpin yang demikian disebut primus inter pares, yaitu yang terutama di antara yang banyak. Jadi, seorang pemimpin adalah yang terbaik bagi mereka bersama.
i. Sistem ekonomi dengan mengenal perdagangan
Kebutuhan hidup manusia selalu menuntut untuk dipenuhi. Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnya, masyarakat kuno saling bertukar barang (barter) dari satu wilayah ke wilayah lain. 

j. Sistem kepercayaan
Manusia yang terdiri atas jasmani dan rohani memunculkan suatu kepercayaan bersifat rohani yang kemudian dipersonifikasikan dalam bentuk riil. Sistem kepercayaan masyarakat Indonesia mulai tumbuh pada masa hidup berburu dan mengumpulkan makanan, ini dibuktikan dengan penemuan lukisan dinding gua di Sulawesi Selatan berbentuk cap tangan merah dengan jari-jari yang direntangkan. Lukisan itu diartikan sebagai sumber kekuatan atau simbol perlindungan untuk mencegah roh jahat. Manusia di zaman hidup bercocok tanam sudah percaya adanya dewa alam yang menciptakan banjir, gunung meletus, gempa bumi, dan sebagainya.

Jadi, dapat kita ketahui bahwa tradisi masyarakat Indonesia sebelum mengenal tulisan adalah sebagai berikut.

a. Organisasi kemasyarakatannya sudah ada, yaitu adanya masyarakat teratur, demokratis, dan memilih pemimpinnya dengan primus inter pares dalam bentuk kesukuan.
b. Kemasyarakatan atau pranata sosialnya adalah masyarakat yang hidup berkelompok sebagai makhluk sosial, dan bergotong royong.
c. Memiliki pengetahuan alam, yakni memanfaatkan alam di sekitarnya sebagai wujud peduli dan memelihara alam lingkungannya.
d. Sudah mengenal sistem persawahan.
e. Kemampuan berlayar dan berdagang dengan memanfaatkan angin musim, bahkan mereka sudah berani mengarungi laut luas.
f. Sudah memiliki teknologi perundagian, yakni pengecoran logam dengan sistem bivalve dan a cire perdue.
g. Sistem kepercayaan pada mulanya menyembah roh nenek moyang kemudian menyembah dewa.
h. Sudah memiliki sistem ekonomi barter.

3. Cara Mewariskan Masa Lampau
Pengalaman kolektif suatu masyarakat diartikan sebagai masa lampau. Beberapa cara yang dapat digunakan oleh masyarakat untuk mewariskan masa lampaunya adalah sebagai berikut. Coba cermati dan telusuri adanya mitologi yang ada di sekitar daerah Anda. Setelah itu, tanyakan kepada sesepuh atau tokoh masyarakat atau siapa saja yang dapat memberikan keterangan tentang mitologi tersebut. Selanjutnya, tuliskan dalam bentuk cerita. Hasilnya paparkan di depan kelas, secara bergiliran. Inovatif dan Kreatif Sejarah Masa Pra Aksara dan Aksara 25
a. Pelatihan dan peniruan. Pengetahuan dan kemampuan yang telah dimiliki diwariskan lewat pelatihan dan peniruan, entah itu dengan perkataan atau perbuatan. Misalnya kepandaian membuat alat-alat dari batu maupun dari besi. Mereka mewariskan kepandaian tersebut kepada generasi berikutnya lewat peniruan pembuatan alat-alat tersebut. Termasuk juga pengetahuan dan kepandaian berburu, memasak makanan, beternak, bersawah dan sebagainya.
b. Penuturan, yakni dengan cara menuturkan secara lisan. Artinya, kemampuan dan pengetahuan yang dimiliki oleh masyarakat diwariskannya dengan cara dituturkan kepada generasi penerusnya.
c. Hasil karya, walaupun masyarakat belum mengenal tulisan namun telah memiliki akal, dengan akalnya akhirnya masyarakat menghasilkan budaya. Dengan budaya inilah dia mewariskan masa lampaunya kepada generasi berikutnya. Dengan demikian lewat hasil karya atau budaya yang dimilikinya, maka dapat diketahui tentang pola hidup dan kehidupan masyarakat tersebut.

Zaman Megalitikum

Pada zaman Megalithikum (Zaman Batu Besar ) di Indonesia, manusia purba telah mengenal suatu kepercayaan terhadap kekuatan gaib atau luar biasa diluar kekuatan manusia. Mereka percaya terhadap hal-hal yang menakutkan atau serba hebat. Selain itu mereka menyembah nenek moyangnya. Kadang kala kalau melihat pohon besar, tinggi dan rimbun, manusia merasa ngeri. 

Manusia purba ini kemudian berkesimpulan bahwa kengerian itu disebabkan pohon itu ada mahluk halus yang menghuninya. Begitupun terhadap batu besar serta binatang besar yang menakutkan. Kekuatan alam yang besar seperti petir, topan, banjir dan gunung meletus dianggap menakutkan dan mengerikan sehingga mereka memujannya. Selain memuja benda-benda dan binatang yang menakutkan dan dianggap gaib, manusia purba juga menyembah arwah leluhurnya. Mereka percaya bahwa roh para nenek moyang mereka tinggal di tempat tertentu atau berada di ketinggian misalnya di atas puncak bukit atau puncak pohon yang tinggi. Untuk tempat turunnya roh nenek moyang inilah didirikan bangunan megalitik yang pada umumnya dibuat dari batu inti yang utuh, keudian diberi bentuk atau dipahat sesuai dengan keinginan atau inspirasi. Bangunan megalitik hampir semuanya berukuran besar. Jadi secara ringkas kepercayaan manusia purba pada masa ini dapat dibedakan menjadi 2 macam yakni:

Dinamisme

Kepercayaan kepada kekuatan gaib yang terdapat pada benda-benda tertentu, misalnya pada pohon, batu besar, gunung, gua, azimat dan benda-benda lain yang dianggap keramat.

Animisme

Kepercayaan kepada roh nenek moyang atau leluhur, mereka percaya, manusia setelah meninggal rohnya tetap adadan tinggal ditempat-tempat tertentu dan harus diberi sesajen pada wktu-waktu tertentu.

Hasil kebudayaan zaman Megalithikum adalah sebagai berikut :

• Menhir , adalah tugu batu yang didirikan sebagai tempat pemujaan untuk memperingati arwah nenek moyang;
• Dolmen, adalah meja batu, merupakan tempat sesaji dan pemujaan kepada roh nenek moyang, Adapu;a yang digunakan untuk kuburan;
• Sarkopagus atau keranda, bentuknya seperti lesung yang mempunyai tutup
• Kubur batu/peti mati yang terbuat dari batu besar yang masing-masing papan batunya lepas satu sama lain
• Punden berundak-undak, bangunan tempat pemujaan yang tersusun bertingkat-tingkat

Tes apakah anda seorang Psikopat??

Ini adalah cerita seorang gadis. Pada saat ada di upacara pemakaman ibunya, dia bertemu dengan seorang laki-laki yang belum dia kenal sebelumnya. Dia sungguh tertarik dengan lelaki ini. Lelaki ini adalah pria idaman yang selalu dia impikan. Dia langsung jatuh cinta dengannya.
Beberapa hari setelahnya, gadis ini membunuh kakak perempuan kandungnya.
PERTANYAAN: Apa motif pembunuhan ini?
Coba Anda pikirkan dulu ya.. kalau sudah, dan ingin tahu jawabannya, silakan highlight kotak putih di bawah ini (klik mouse Anda di ujung kiri kotak, lalu drag mouse Anda ke kanan, maka tulisan jawabannya akan ter-highlight, atau kalau mau gampang tekan Ctrl + A di keyboard Anda).

Gadis ini berharap bahwa lelaki idamannya akan muncul lagi di pemakaman kakak perempuannya.

Tes ini dibuat oleh seorang psikolog Amerika yang terkenal. Tes diberikan untuk mengetahi apakah seseorang memiliki mentalitas sebagai seorang pembunuh. Banyak narapidana kasus pembunuhan disuruh menjawab tes ini, dan jawabannya benar.

Big Ben Tower

kali ini postingan saya tentang Big Ben.artikel ini adalah tulisan saya sendiri.. jika ada kekurangan boleh di komentar.selamat membaca..

                      Big Ben,Karya Besar Yang Mengagumkan

                        

                           Dewasa ini,siapa yang tidak tahu dengan kota London.Dengan adanya berbagai sumber seperti media cetak,dan media elektronik,memungkinkan semua informasi dari segala penjuru manusia berada di genggaman kita.sehingga semua itu membuat semua orang tahu beberapa tempat yang menganggumkan seperti salah satunya kota london.Kota london yang dulunya bernama Londinium,di bangun oleh bangsa romawi.mungkin itu adalah salah satu penyebabnya adanya  bangunan bangunan kuno yang ber-asitektur indah di London.

                             Kota yang merupakan ibukota inggris ini mempunyai banyak tempat-tempat indah untuk di datangi para wisatawan.salah satunya bangunan menara jam raksasa,bernama Big Ben atau yang dulu bernama Great Bell,yang merupakan icon kota london.Big Ben sebenarnya adalah nama lonceng yang ada di dalam menara jam raksasa itu.Big Ben berada di samping Houses of Parliament,yaitu istana pengganti yang dibuat oleh Charles Barry yang di sebabkan oleh kebakaran istana Westminster pada tahun 22 Oktober tahun 1834.Big Ben di rancang oleh Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin dan buat dengan gaya Victorian Gothic dengan tinggi 96,3 meter,12 meter persegi dan 4 sisi jam.lonceng jamnya di lapisi oleh emas,dan di bagian bawah setiap sisi jam memiliki tulisan,Domine Salvam Fac Reginan Nostram Victoriam Primam yang berarti oh tuhan,lindungi ratu victoria yang pertama.Big Ben terletak di tengah-tengah London di samping sungai Thames dan melekat ke Houses parliament atau di indonesia di sebut dengan gedung DPR atau MPR.satu hal mitos yang mungkin banyak orang yang tidak tahu tentang Big Ben ini, yaitu konon katanya mesin jam Big Ben ini sama dengan mesin Jam Gadang yang terletak di Bukittinggi,Sumatra Barat.Menarik sekali kan?.

                            Bagi yang hobi dengan Travelling,Big Ben di kota London ini menjadi pilihan yang tidak akan mengecewakan.tempat ini tidak akan membosankan karena selain Big Ben ,terdapat juga London Eye yaitu sebuah Bianglala besar yang cukup menarik.jika anda tertarik mengunjunginya,anda tidak akan menyesal,karena Big Ben adalah sebuah keindahan seni yang nyata.

Download video dari you tube tanpa software

Download video dari you tube tanpa software

Buat semua yang hobi nonton video dari you tube.Nah, Berikut ini saya ada sedikit tips untuk download video dari youtube tanpa software pendownload video khusus

• Cara yang pertama untuk mendownload video dari youtube yaitu dengan cara mengetikkan alamat http://www.keepvid.com di address bar , kemudian copy paste link video youtube yang ingin kamu download ke dalam kotak url yang berada pada web keepvid lalu klik tombol download dan tunggu beberapa menit. Setelah muncul pilihan di dalam kotak “DOWNLOAD LINK”, pilih saja salah satu apakah mau low quality ataupun high quality.
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Download Novel Ilana Tan format pdf

Bagi yang ingin men-download novel karya Ilana Tan,bisa download dengan link yang ada di bawah ini


1.Spring in Seoul
Click here

2.Winter in Tokyo (saya sih suka yang ini)
Click here

Culture of Indonesia

Indonesian children dress in various traditional costumes.

The Culture of Indonesia has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Indonesia is central along ancient trading routes between the Far East and the Middle East, resulting in many cultural practices being strongly influenced by a multitude of religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism and Islam, all strong in the major trading cities. The result is a complex cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures.
Examples of cultural fusion include the fusion of Islam with Hindu in Javanese Abangan belief, the fusion of Hinduism, Buddhism and animism in Bodha, and the fusion of Hinduism and animism in Kaharingan; others could be cited.
Indonesian art-forms express this cultural mix. Wayang, traditional theater-performed puppet shows, were a medium in the spread of Hinduism and Islam amongst Javan villagers. Both Javanese and Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau and Aceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat.
Western culture has greatly influenced Indonesia in modern entertainment such as television shows, film and music, as well as political system and issues. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies. A popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arab and Malay folk music.
Despite the influences of foreign culture, some remote Indonesian regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture. Indigenous ethnic groups Mentawai, Asmat, Dani, Dayak, Toraja and many others are still practicing their ethnic rituals, customs and wearing traditional clothes.

Traditional performing arts

 Music

Gamelan player, Yogyakarta

Indonesia is home to various styles of music, with those from the islands of Java, Sumatra and Bali being frequently recorded. The traditional music of central and East Java and Bali is the gamelan.
On June 29, 1965, Koes Plus, a leading Indonesian pop group in the 1960s, 70s and 80s, was imprisoned in Glodok, West Jakarta, for playing Western-style music. After the resignation of President Sukarno, the law was rescinded, and in the 1970s the Glodok prison was dismantled and replaced with a large shopping mall.
Kroncong is a musical genre that uses guitars and ukuleles as the main musical instruments. This genre had its roots in Portugal and was introduced by Portuguese traders in the 15th century. There is a traditional Keroncong Tugu music group in North Jakarta and other traditional Keroncong music groups in Maluku, with strong Portuguese influences. This music genre was popular in the first half of the 12th century; a contemporary form of Kroncong is called Pop Kroncong.
Angklung musical orchestra, native of West Java, received international recognition as UNESCO has listed the traditional West Java musical instrument made from bamboo in the list of intangible cultural heritage.^[1][2]
The soft Sasando music from the province of East Nusa Tenggara in West Timor is completely different. Sasando uses an instrument made from a split leaf of the Lontar palm (Borassus flabellifer), which bears some resemblance to a harp.

 Dance

Balinese topeng dance drama.

Indonesian dance reflects the diversity of culture from ethnic groups that composed the nation of Indonesia. Austronesian roots and Melanesian tribal dance forms are visible, and influences ranging from neighboring Asian countries; such as India, China, and Middle East to European western styles through colonization. Each ethnic group has their own distinct dances; makes total dances in Indonesia are more than 3000 Indonesian original dances. However, the dances of Indonesia can be divided into three eras; the Prehistoric Era, the Hindu/Buddhist Era and the Era of Islam, and into two genres; court dance and folk dance.
There is a continuum in the traditional dances depicting episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata from India, ranging through Thailand, all the way to Bali. There is a marked difference, though, between the highly stylized dances of the courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta and their popular variations. While the court dances are promoted and even performed internationally, the popular forms of dance art and drama must largely be discovered locally.
During the last few years, Saman from Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam has become rather popular and is often portrayed on TV. Reog Ponorogo is also a dance that originated from the district Ponorogo, East Java, which is a visualization of the legendary story Wengker kingdom and the kingdom of Kediri.
A popular line dance called Poco-poco was originated in Indonesia and also popular in Malaysia, but at early April 2011 Malaysian Islamic clerics ban poco-poco dance for Muslims due to they believe it is traditionally a Christian dance and that its steps make the sign of the cross.^[3]

 Drama and theatre

Wayang kulit performance.

Wayang, the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese shadow puppet theatre shows display several mythological legends such as Ramayana and Mahabharata, and many more. Wayang Orang is Javanese traditional dance drama based on wayang stories. Various Balinese dance drama also can be included within traditional form of Indonesian drama. Another form of local drama is Javanese Ludruk and Ketoprak, Sundanese Sandiwara, and Betawi Lenong. All of these drama incorporated humor and jest, often involving audiences in their performance.
Randai is a folk theatre tradition of the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra, usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals. It incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the silat martial art, with performances often based on semi-historical Minangkabau legends and love story.
Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia with their distinct style of drama. Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as Teater Koma are gain popularity in Indonesia as their drama often portray social and political satire of Indonesian society.

 Martial Art

Pencak Silat demonstration in Jakarta.

The art of silat was created and firstly developed in the islands of Java and Sumatra. It is an art for survival and practiced throughout Indonesian archipelago. Centuries of tribal wars in Indonesian history had shaped silat as it was used by the ancient warriors of Indonesia. Silat was used to determine the rank and position in old Indonesian kingdoms.
Contacts with Indians and Chinese was further enriched silat. Silat reached areas beyond Indonesia mainly through diaspora of Indonesian people. People from various regions like Aceh, Minangkabau, Riau, Bugis, Makassar, Java, Banjar, etc. moved into and settled in Malay Peninsula and other islands. They brought silat and passed it down to their descendants. The Indonesian of half-Dutch descent are also credited as the first to brought the art into Europe.
Silat was used by Indonesian freedom fighters during their struggle against the Dutch colonists. Unfortunately after Indonesia achieving their independence, silat became less popular among Indonesian youth compare to foreign martial arts like Karate and Taekwondo. This probably because silat was not taught openly and only passed down among blood relatives, the other reason is the lack of media portrayal of the art.
Efforts have been made in recent years to introduce and reintroduce the beauty of silat to Indonesian youth and the world. Exhibitions and promotions by individuals as well as state-sponsored groups helped the growing of silat's popularity, particularly in Europe and United States. Indonesian 2009 Silat movie Merantau is one of Indonesian efforts to introduce silat to international scene.
Another martial art from Indonesia is Tarung Derajat. It is a modern combat system created by Haji Ahmad Drajat based on his experience as a street fighter. Tarung Drajat has been acknowledge as a national sport by KONI in 1998 and is now using by Indonesian Army as part of their basic training.

 Painting

Kenyah mural painting in Long Nawang, East Kalimantan.

What Indonesian painting before the 19th century are mostly restricted to the decorative arts, considered to be a religious and spiritual activity, comparable to the pre-1400 European art. Artists name are anonymous, since the individual human creator was seen as far less important than their creation to honor the deities or spirits. Some examples are the Kenyah decorative art, based on endemic natural motifs such as ferns and hornbills, found decorating the walls of Kenyah long houses. Other notable traditional art is the geometric Toraja wood carvings. Balinese painting are initially the narative images to depict scenes of Balinese legends and religious scripts. The classical Balinese paintings are often decorating the lontar manuscripts and also the ceilings of temples pavilion.

Hunt by Raden Saleh.

Balinese painting by I Ketut Ginarsa.

Under the influence of the Dutch colonial power, a trend toward Western-style painting emerged in the 19th century. In the Netherlands, the term "Indonesian Painting" is applied to the paintings produced by Dutch or other foreign artists who lived and worked in the former Netherlands-Indies. The most famous indigenous 19th century Indonesian painter is Raden Saleh (1807–1877), the first indigenous artist to study in Europe. His art is heavily influenced by Romanticism.^[4] In 1920's Walter Spies began to settled in Bali, he is often credited with attracting the attention of Western cultural figures to Balinese culture and art. His works has somehow influenced Balinese artists and painters. Today Bali has one of the most vivid and richest painting tradition in Indonesia.
The 1920s to 1940s were a time of growing nationalism in Indonesia. The previous period of romanticism movement was not seen as a purely Indonesian movement and did not developed. Painters began to see the natural world for inspiration. Some examples of Indonesian painter during this period are the Balinese Ida Bagus Made and the realist Basuki Abdullah. The Indonesian Painters Association (Persatuan Ahli-Ahli Gambar Indonesia or PERSAGI, 1938–1942) was formed during this period. PERSAGI established a contemporary art philosophy that saw art works as reflections of the artist’s individual or personal view as well as an expression of national cultural thoughts.
From the 1940s on, artists started to mix Western techniques with Southeast Asian imagery and content. Painters that rooted in the revolutionary movement of the World War and the post-World War period started to appear during this period, such as Sudjojono, Affandi, and Hendra.^[5]
During the 1960s, new elements were added when abstract expressionism and Islamic art began to be absorbed by the art community. Also during this period, group of painters that are more concerned about the reality of Indonesian society began to appear, taking inspiration from the social problem such as division between the rich and the poor, pollution, and deforestation. The national identity of Indonesia was stressed by these painters through the use of a realistic, documentary style. During the Sukarno period this socially-engaged art was officially promoted, but after 1965 it lost popularity due to its presumed communist tendencies.^[6]
Three art academies offer extensive formal training in visual art: Bandung Institute of Technology founded in 1947; the Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia (Indonesian Fine Arts Academy) or ASRI, now known as ISI, in Yogyakarta was inaugurated in 1950; and the Institut Kesenian Jakarta (Jakarta Arts Institute) or IKJ, was opened in 1970.

See also: List of Indonesian painters

 Sculpture

Relief sculpture from Borobudur temple.

Indonesia has a long history of stone, bronze and iron ages arts. The megalithic sculptures can be found in numerous archaeological sites in Sumatra, Java to Sulawesi. The native Indonesians tribes have their own distinct tribal sculpture styles, usually created to depict ancestors, deities and animals. The pre-Hindu-Budhist and pre-Islamic sculptures can be traced in the artworks of indigenous Indonesian tribes. The most notable sculptures are those of Asmat wooden sculpture of Papua, the Dayak wooden mask and sculpture, the ancestral wooden statue of Toraja, also the totem-like sculpture of Batak and Nias tribe.
The stone sculpture artform particularly flourished in the eighth to tenth centuries Java and Bali, which demonstrate the influences of Hindu-Buddhist culture, both as stand-alone works of art and also incorporated into temples. Most notable sculpture of classical Hindu-Buddhist era of Indonesia are the hundreds of meters of relief and hundreds of stone buddhas at the temple of Borobudur in central Java. Approximately two miles of exquisite relief sculpture tell the story of the life of Buddha and illustrate his teachings. The temple was originally home to 504 statues of the seated Buddha. This site, as with others in central Java, show a clear Indian influence. The examples of notable Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist sculptures are; the statues of Hindu deities; Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga, Ganesha and Agastya enthroned in rooms of Prambanan temples, the Vishnu mounting Garuda statue of king Airlangga, the exquisite statue of Eastern Javanese Prajnaparamita and 3.7 meters tall Dvarapala dated from Singhasari period, and also the grand statue of Bhairava Adityawarman discovered in Sumatra. Today, the Hindu-Buddhist style stone sculptures are reproduced in villages in Muntilan near Borobudur also in Bali, and sold as garden or pool ornament statues for homes, offices and hotels.
Today in Indonesia, the richest, most elaborate and vivid wooden sculpture and wood carving traditions can be found in Bali and Jepara, Central Java. Balinese handicrafts such as sculptures, masks, and other carving artworks are popular souvenir for tourist that have visited Indonesia. On the other hand the Jepara wood carving are famous for its elaborately carved wooden furnitures, folding screens also pelaminan gebyok (wedding throne with carved background).

 Architecture

Minangkabau Rumah Gadang

For centuries, the most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture were Indian, although European influences have been particularly strong since the nineteenth century and modern architecture in Indonesia is international in scope.
As in much of South East Asia, traditional buildings in Indonesia are built on stilts, with the significant exceptions of Java and Bali. Notable stilt houses are those of the Dayak people in Borneo, the Rumah Gadang of the Minangkabau people in western Sumatra, the Batak people in northern Sumatra, and the Tongkonan of the Toraja people in Sulawesi. Oversized saddle roofs with large eaves, such as the homes of the Batak and the tongkonan of Toraja, are often bigger than the house they shelter. The fronts of Torajan houses are frequently decorated with buffalo horns, stacked one above another, as an indication of status. The outside walls also frequently feature decorative reliefs.
The eighth-century Borobudur temple near Yogyakarta is the largest Buddhist temple in the world, and is notable for incorporating about 160 relief panels into its structure, telling the story of the life of the Buddha. As the visitor ascends through the eight levels of the temple, the story unfolds, the final three levels simply containing stupas and statues of the Buddha. The building is said to incorporate a map of the Buddhist cosmos and is a masterful fusion of the didactic, the monumental and the serene.
The nearby ninth-century temple complex at Prambanan contains some of the best preserved examples of Hindu temple architecture in Java. The temple complex comprises eight main shrines, surrounded by 250 smaller shrines. The Indian influence on the site is clear, not only in the style of the monument, but also in the reliefs featuring scenes from the Ramayana which adorn the outer walls of the main temples, and in the votive statuary found within.

 Crafts

Hand drawn batik making

Several Indonesian islands are famous for their batik, ikat and songket cloth. Once on the brink of disappearing, batik and later ikat found a new lease of life when former President Suharto promoted wearing batik shirts on official occasions. In addition to the traditional patterns with their special meanings, used for particular occasions, batik designs have become creative and diverse over the last few years.
Other worldwide famous Indonesian crafts are Jepara wood carving^[7] and Kris. In 2005, UNESCO recognized Kris as one of Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity from Indonesia.^[8]

 Literature

Pramoedya Ananta Toer was Indonesia's most internationally celebrated author, having won the Magsaysay Award as well as being considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Other important figures include the late Chairil Anwar, a poet and member of the "Generation 45" group of authors who were active in the Indonesian independence movement. Tight information controls during Suharto's presidency suppressed new writing, especially because of its ability to agitate for social reform.
In the book Max Havelaar, Dutch author Multatuli criticised the Dutch treatment of the Indonesians, which gained him international attention.
Modern Indonesian authors include Seno Gumira Adjidarma, Andrea Hirata, Habiburrahman El Shirazy, Ayu Utami, Gus tf Sakai, Eka Kurniawan, Ratih Kumala, Dee, Oka Rusmini. Some of their works have translated into other languages.

 Poetry

There is a long tradition in Indonesia, particularly among ethnically Malay populations, of extemporary, interactive, oral composition of poetry. These poems are referred to as pantun. Contemporary Indonesian poets include among others, Sutardji Calzoum Bachri, Rendra, Taufiq Ismail, Afrizal Malna,^[9] Binhad Nurrohmat, Joko Pinurbo, Sapardi Djoko Damono.

 Recreation and sports

The rattan ball used in Sepak Takraw.

Many traditional games are still preserved and popular in Indonesia, although western culture has influenced some parts of them. Among three hundred officially recognized Indonesian cultures, there are many kinds of traditional games: cockfighting in Bali, annual bull races in Madura, and stone jumping in Nias. Stone jumping involves leaping over a stone wall about up to 1.5 m high and was originally used to train warriors. Pencak Silat is another popular form of sport, which was influenced by Asian culture as a whole. Another form of national sport is sepak takraw.^[10] The rules are similar to volleyball: to keep the rattan ball in the air with the players' feet.
Popular modern sports in Indonesia played at the international level include association football and badminton. Indonesian badminton athletes have played in Indonesia Open Badminton Championship, All England Open Badminton Championships and many international events, including the Summer Olympics since badminton was made an Olympic sport in 1992. Rudy Hartono is a legendary Indonesian badminton player, who won All England titles seven times in a row (1968 through 1974). Indonesian teams have won the Thomas Cup (men's world team championship) thirteen of the twenty-two times that it has been contested since they entered the series in 1957.^[11] In the hugely internationally popular sport of soccer (football), Indonesian teams have been active in the Asian Football Confederation (AFC).
Sporting events in Indonesia are organised by the Indonesian National Sport Committee (KONI). The Committee, along with the government of Indonesia, have set a National Sports Day on every September 9 with "Sports for All" as the motto. Indonesia has hosted the Southeast Asian Games four times, in 1979, 1987, 1997 and 2011, and won overall champion title in each of these years. As of 2011, Indonesia has won champion titles 10 times overall out of 18 SEA Games it has attended since debuted in 1977.

 Cuisine

Nasi goreng (fried rice), one of the most popular Indonesian dishes.

Soto and Satay, together with Nasi Goreng are considered as Indonesian national dish.

The cuisine of Indonesia has been influenced by Chinese culture and Indian culture, as well as by Western culture. However in return, Indonesian cuisine has also contributed to the cuisines of neighboring countries, notably Malaysia and Singapore, where Padang or Minangkabau cuisine from West Sumatra is very popular. Also Satay (Sate in Indonesian), which originated from Java, Madura, and Sumatra, has gained popularity as a street vendor food from Singapore to Thailand. In the fifteenth century, both the Portuguese and Arab traders arrived in Indonesia with the intention of trading for pepper and other spices. During the colonial era, immigrants from many different countries have arrived in Indonesia and brought different cultures as well as cuisines.
Most native Indonesians eat rice as the main dish, with a wide range of vegetables and meat as side dishes. However, in some parts of the country, such as Irian Jaya and Ambon, the majority of the people eat sago (a type of tapioca) and sweet potato.
The most important aspect of modern Indonesia cuisine is that food must be halal, conforming to Islamic food laws. Haraam, the opposite of halal, includes pork and alcoholic drinks. However, in some regions where there is significant non-Muslim population, non-halal food are also commonly served.
Indonesian dishes are usually spicy, using a wide range of chili peppers and spices. The most popular dishes include nasi goreng (fried rice), Satay, Nasi Padang (a dish of Minangkabau) and soy-based dishes, such as tofu and tempe. A unique characteristic of some Indonesian food is the application of spicy peanut sauce in their dishes, as a dressing for Gado-gado or Karedok (Indonesian style salad), or for seasoning grilled chicken satay. Another unique aspect of Indonesian cuisine is using terasi or belacan, a pungent shrimp paste in dishes of sambal oelek (hot pungent chili sauce). The sprinkling of fried shallots also gives a unique crisp texture to some Indonesian dishes.
Chinese and Indian cultures have influenced the serving of food and the types of spices used. It is very common to find Chinese food in Indonesia such as Dim Sum as well as noodles, and Indian cuisine such as Tandoori chicken. In addition, Western culture has significantly contributed to the extensive range of dishes. However, the dishes have been transformed to suit Indonesian people's tastes. For example, steaks are usually served with rice. Popular fast foods such as Kentucky Fried Chicken are served with rice instead of bread, and sambal (spicy sauce) instead of ketchup. Some Indonesian foods have been adopted by the Dutch, like Indonesian rice table or 'rijsttafel'.

 Popular media

 Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Indonesia

The largest chain of cinemas in Indonesia is 21Cineplex, which has cinemas spread throughout twenty-four cities on the major islands of Indonesia. Many smaller independent cinemas also exist.
In the 1980s, the film industry in Indonesia was at its peak, and dominated the cinemas in Indonesia with movies that have retained a high reputation, such as Catatan Si Boy and Blok M and actors like Onky Alexander, Meriam Bellina, Nike Ardilla and Paramitha Rusady.^[13] However, the film industry failed to continue its successes in the 1990s, when the number of movies produced decreased significantly, from 115 movies in 1990 to just 37 in 1993.^[14] As a result, most movies produced in the '90s contained adult themes. In addition, movies from Hollywood and Hong Kong started to dominate Indonesian cinema. The industry started to recover in the late 1990s, with the rise of independent directors and many new movies produced, such as Garin Nugroho's Cinta dalam Sepotong Roti, Riri Riza and Mira Lesmana's Petualangan Sherina and Arisan! by Nia Dinata.^[13] Another form of recovery is the re-establishment of the Indonesian Film Festival (FFI), inactive for twelve years, and the creation of the Jakarta International Film Festival. Daun di Atas Bantal (1998) received The Best Movie award in the 1998 Asia Pacific Film Festival in Taipei.^[15]

Radio

The state radio network Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI) was founded in 1945. It consists of a network of regional stations located in all thirty-three provinces of the archipelago. In most cities and large towns there are also many commercial stations. Since 2006, several digital radio stations have been based in Jakarta and Surabaya, using Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and Hybrid HD-Radio.^[16][17][18]

Religion and philosophy

Main articles: Religion in Indonesia and Indonesian philosophy

Islam is Indonesia's main religion, with almost 88% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census,^[19] making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. The remaining population is 9% Christian (of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant with the remainder mainly Catholic, and a large minority Charismatic), 2% Hindu and 1% Buddhist.
The Pancasila, the statement of two principles which encapsulate the ideology of the Indonesian state, affirms that "The state shall be based on the belief in the one and only God".